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 David Appleyard's English Toolbox
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Cambridge Dictionaries Online

Guide to
Words Often Confused
An alphabetical listing of well-known English troublemakers

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List of Contents

Introduction      The Danger List

Making Sense of Vexing Vocabulary

In this compartment of the English Toolbox we'll attempt to clarify differences in meaning between words which, because they look or sound very similar, tend to cause confusion among both foreign students of English and native speakers alike. 

It will soon become apparent that, in order to distinguish between homonyms of entirely different meaning (e.g. story and storey), British English has maintained a richer variety of spellings. So it is probably safe to say there is less scope for errors in AmE (=American English) than in BrE (=British English). Please judge for yourselves, and comments or suggestions are always welcome!

Confusing Words

Examples of Usage, or Clarification
accede + exceed (1) He acceded to the man's request.
(2) Queen Elizabeth II acceded to the throne in 1953.
Too many drivers exceed the speed limit in built-up areas.
accept + except (1) The corrupt officials had accepted bribes.
(2) They accepted they would have to lose their jobs.
(1) Low-income families are excepted from paying the new tax.
(2) Everyone except John came to the party.
access + excess (1) The thief gained access to the office through a side door. Then he accessed the safe.
(2) When he discovered it was empty he left in an access of anger.
(1) Airlines will no longer tolerate excess hand-luggage.
(2) Some terrible excesses are committed in the name of religion.
adapt + adopt (1) It took the Eskimo quite a long time to adapt to life in the Congo.
(2) Microsoft software has been adapted to work on Apple computers.
(3) The author JK Rowling could not imagine having her quintessentially British "Harry Potter" stories specially adapted for American audiences.
(1) They childless couple adopted an orphaned two-year-old girl from Korea.
(2) The local school board will adopt strict new penalties to counter bullying.
(3) More Japanese companies are adopting western styles of management.
(4) BrE The Conservative Party adopted Michael Howard as its leader in 2003.
affect + effect The noisy crowd affected the tennis star's concentration.
(1) The thick fog had no effect on her arrival time.
(2) The prime minister is trying to effect policy changes.
allude + elude When the President mentioned "evil forces" he was alluding to the terrorists.
(1) They will not be able to elude justice indefinitely.
(2) It eludes me how suicide bombers can believe they're going to paradise!
allusion + illusion An allusion is an indirect reference to something.
An illusion is a false impression.
altar + alter In the church there was a cross on the altar.
It is impossible to alter past mistakes, but we can learn from them.
amend + emend When you mean general changes for the better or modifications to rules or legislation, amend is the correct choice: 
(1) The boy was told to amend his behavior or face possible expulsion. 
(2) The sudden outbreak of war forced the journalist to amend his article.
(3) Some Japanese would like to amend the nation's constitution. 
The use of emend is generally limited to text correction (hint: like 'edit' it begins with an 'e'): The publisher told the author to emend his manuscript.
annex + annexe Israeli settlers still believe they have a God-given right to annex Arab land.
In BrE, an annexe is either an extension to an existing building or a smaller building constructed later alongside (AmE annex).
artist + artiste An artist is a painter or one who is skilled in any of the fine arts.
An artiste is a professional performer on stage or in the circus.
ascent + assent The first successful ascent of Everest took place in 1953.
The appointment of a new British prime minister still requires royal assent, but this is a mere formality.
assure + ensure
+ insure		 The government always assures us that it is safe to eat beef.
Every driver should ensure his passengers are wearing seatbelts.
You should insure valuables against loss, theft or damage.
aural + oral Aural relates to the ears. An aural exam is one in listening comprehension.
Oral relates to the mouth. It's hard to prepare for an oral English exam.
baited + bated The small mousetrap was baited with cheddar cheese.
So he looked on with bated breath when a large rat appeared!
bale (out) + bail (out) (1) There was a large bale of hay in the barn.
(2) He needed a bucket to bale out rain water from the boat.
(1) He was charged with the offense but later released on bail.
(2) Some governments may have to bail out their national airlines.
base + bass (1) He found the sell-by date printed on the base of the container.
(2) Their mission accomplished, the special force returned to base.
His father complained when he turned up the bass on his stereo. 
berth + birth (1) The QE2 berths in New York on the 18th. Here is her berth.
(2) You can sleep well on board because of the comfortable berths.
The crew say they can deal with anything, even the birth of a baby!
bloc + block All those countries of eastern Europe which were once part of the communist bloc have now embraced the free market.
(1) A fallen tree blocked the road. 
(2) He picked up a block of wood and threw it on the fire.
(3) He lived in a block of flats (AmE apartment building).
blond + blonde He is blond. His sister also has blond hair.
She is blonde. She's a blonde. 
born + borne She was born in San Francisco.
Now a local hero, he was borne shoulder-high through the street. 
bough + bow The monkey sat on the bough of a tree eating a banana.
(1) The bow of a ship is the fore-end.
(2) The Japanese man gave me a bow instead of a handshake.
brake + break To stop, put your foot on the brake, but don't brake too suddenly.
(1) If you drop the glass on the floor it will break.
(2) The doctor had to break the news of the failed operation.
(3) He's been working too hard and needs a complete break.
(4) Landing that well-paid job with IBM was his lucky break.
bridal + bridle The couple had booked the bridal suite for their wedding night.
(1) The bridle is the piece of headgear used to control a horse.
(2) Mrs. Thompson bridled at her daughter's ungrateful remarks.
broach + brooch We didn't want to broach the issue of the dead man's debts at his funeral.
Former U.S. Secretary of State Madeline Albright always wore a large brooch carefully chosen to reflect her mood.
boy + buoy Their second child was a boy.
(1) The site of the shipwreck was marked by a buoy.
(2) It's cruel to buoy up someone's hopes if failure seems certain.
canon + cannon (1) The priest's father had been a canon, but he certainly wasn't the son of a gun!
(2) Canon Law is a body of laws for the Roman Catholic church.
A 19th-century cannon stood in front of the castle.
canvas + canvass He paints pictures on canvas and camps out in a canvas tent.
The party's candidate wasn't able to canvass enough support to win the election.
cast + caste (1) If you cast something you throw it purposefully and forcefully: the Romans used to cast Christians to the lions; come springtime I'll cast off these winter clothes; 
Matt cast the dice, praying for a double six; offshore fishermen cast their nets, while onshore anglers cast their lines.
(2) He cast a glance at his watch.
(3) The disaster could cast doubt on the future of the space program.
(4) You cast your fate to the wind if you drive without a seatbelt. 
(5) The wicked witch cast an evil spell on the boy and turned him into a frog.
(6) Now that the election campaign is over, the electorate can finally cast its vote.
(7) Using a cast or mould (AmE mold), molten metal or plastic is cast into a desired shape.
(8) In Casino Royale Daniel Craig was cast as the new James Bond. He was well supported by the rest of the cast (other actors).
(9) In zoology, a cast can be a mass of earth excreted by a worm or a mass of indigestible food regurgitated by a large bird.
1) The Hindu caste system discriminates people according to their perceived purity.
(2) In more general terms, a caste has come to mean any exclusive social class.
(3) In zoology, a caste is a category of insect with a particular social function.
censor + censure Many governments still try to censor the news.
Former tennis star John McEnroe was often censured for his cantankerous behavior.
childish + childlike He soon gets angry if he can't have his own way. He's so childish!
She has a childlike appreciation of the simpler things in life.
complement + compliment (1) Scones and jam are an excellent complement to afternoon tea.
(2) The ship left port with a full complement of officers and crew.
She complimented him on his cooking. 
contemptible + contemptuous If you strongly dislike and have no respect at all for something or someone then you describe it or him or her as contemptible.
In the above situation you yourself are contemptuous.
continual + continuous If something is continual it is incessant or constantly repeated.
If something is continuous it is unbroken and so truly non-stop.
cord + chord (1) The kidnappers tied his hands with a piece of cord.
(2) In anatomy we read about the spinal cord and the vocal cords.
(1) He played a chord on the piano.
(2) His emotionally charged speech struck a chord with the audience.
(3) In geometry a chord is a straight line joining the ends of an arc.
corps + corpse The French word corps is used for a group of people working together to perform a specific task, e.g. the diplomatic corps.
A corpse is a dead body, usually human.
council + counsel A council is a formal decision-making body meeting regularly.
After being served with a summons he sought legal counsel.
councilor +counselor  A councilor (BrE councillor) is an elected member of a council.
A counselor (BrE counsellor) is an adviser, legal or otherwise.
currant + current A currant is a small dried seedless grape.
(1) A current is a flow of air, water or electricity.
(2) The adjective current means present or existing.
dairy + diary Dairy products are foods made from milk, like butter and cheese.
A diary is a book with a separate space for every day of the year so you can write what you have done or are planning to do each day.
dependant + dependent A dependant (AmE dependent) is a person who is supported by someone else. 
Dependent means relying or depending on something/somebody. 
dependence + dependency Dependence is the state of relying on something/somebody else.
(1) Tahiti is a dependency of France.
(2) A dependency is a specific kind of dependence (see above!), e.g. 'Too many young people have a dependency on drugs.' 'The Swedish government has nurtured too much welfare dependency.'
(3) In AmE, a dependency is a smaller building, such as a stable, that is an adjunct to a larger one.
desert + dessert The Sahara is a desert in north Africa.
Chocolate pudding with whipped cream is my favorite dessert.
discrete + discreet If something is discrete it is apart from something else. For example, the brain has two discrete halves.
If someone is discreet they are tactful and generally cautious about what they say so as not to embarrass or cause offense. 
draft + draught (1) She sent a first draft of her medical paper to the publisher.
(2) I received a banker's draft for $100.
(1) There's a cold draught (AmE draft) every time the door opens.
(2) She took a long draught (AmE draft) of beer.
(3) She always prefers draught (AmE draft) beer to bottled beer.
(4) Flat-bottomed boats have a shallow draught (AmE draft). 
(5) After dinner they played a game of draughts (AmE checkers). 
dual + duel Natalie has dual nationality: British and French.
The Wimbledon men's singles final turned out to be an exciting duel.
eatable + edible If food is eatable then it is palatable and probably quite tasty.
If food is edible then it is merely suitable or safe to eat. 
economic + economical (1) According to an economic survey, Japan is in recession.
(2) If prices keep falling, our business will no longer be economic.
Small cars are more economical. but not as safe as large ones. 
effective + efficient (1) Using less energy is the most effective way to reduce pollution.
(2) In Japan it is often bureaucrats who are in effective command.
(3) The new law becomes effective on January 1.
It would be unnecessary for staff to put in so much overtime if their work routines were more efficient.
egoist + egotist An egoist is guilty of egoism, which is another word for selfishness. An egoist only considers what is best for himself and doesn't care about others.
An egotist is guilty of egotism, which is a preoccupation with oneself and a belief in one's superiority to others.  An egotist speaks incessantly of his own achievements.
elicit + illicit The teacher used a lot of tag questions in order to elicit yes/no answers from the students.
Bill Clinton is said to have had a number of illicit love affairs. 
eligible + illegible She wasn't eligible to apply for the job because she didn't have the right qualifications.
His handwriting was so bad that it was illegible.
emigrant + immigrant America is home to immigrants from all over the world.
Many poorer emigrants from Europe never reached America. 
eminent + imminent The eminent scientist was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry.
When she saw the black clouds she knew a storm was imminent.
enquire + inquire Nowadays enquire and inquire are being used interchangeably. 
For purists, however, a useful distinction can be made between enquire, meaning to ask about something in general, and inquire, meaning to investigate something in an official capacity. When conducting an academic investigation, it seems enquire is preferred.
ensure + insure High security is in place to ensure (AmE also 'insure') the dignitaries' safety.
It is said Dolly Parton took the trouble to insure her breasts for $600,000.
epigram + epigraph
 + epitaph		 An epigram is a short, witty, proverbial poem, maxim or saying.
An epigraph is the (often Latin) inscription on a statue, coin, etc.
An epitaph is a few words written in memory of someone who has died, usually on their tombstone.
esteem + estimate Former South African President Mandela is held in high esteem.
Authorities estimate the cost of reconstruction will be around 200 million dollars.
expedient + expeditious (1) If it is expedient to do something it is advantageous, efficient and convenient, but not necessarily morally acceptable.
(2) An expedient is a means to an end without moral considerations. 
If an action is expeditious it is simply fast and efficient.
farther + further Farther can only apply to distance, e.g. 'I couldn't walk any farther'.
Further is much more common and is not only used for distance but in a more general sense. As a verb it means to promote or advance something.
(1) I could not go any further.
(2) She explained further what he had to do.
(3) His prime-time TV appearance helped him further his cause.
flair + flare Bill has a flair for making people laugh.
(1) When we saw the passing ship we launched a distress flare.
(2) Almost every day trouble flares up somewhere in the world.
(3) 1970s trousers were flared (=became wider) at the bottom.
floe + flow There are ice floes in the Baltic all through the winter.
Water flows through pipes.
forbear + forebear (1) The noun forbear means 'ancestor'.
(2) As a verb in literature, to forbear means to abstain or desist from doing something.
Forebear is an alternative spelling for the noun form only.
forgo + forego
forgone + foregone		 The only meaning of forgo is to relinquish a right to something or do without it, e.g. 'Since the warranty had expired he had forgone his right to free repair service'. 
(1) Forgo/forgone above can also be spelt forego/foregone. 
(2) As a verb in literature forego means 'precede in time or place'.
(3) A foregone conclusion is an easily predictable outcome.
gamble + gambol When people gamble they bet money on the horses or in casinos.
When kids or puppies gambol they run and jump around playfully.
genus + genius A genus is a category of similar animals or plants.
Einstein was a genius for his intelligence, and Mozart for his creative talent.
gild + guild If you gild something you cover it in gold or gold-like material.
A guild is a kind of special interest group or association.
gilt + guilt Gilt is the gold or gold-like material you use for gilding.
You have a sense of guilt if you know you have done something wrong AND feel unhappy about it.
hangar + hanger An aircraft is kept or undergoes maintenance in a hangar.
Jackie hates putting her clothes in the closet on wire hangers.
historic + historical A historic event is one whose significance will be remembered by future generations. The fact that the U.S., Russia and China now stand united against terrorism is a historic development.
Something or someone historical existed in the past. Stonehenge, for example, is a structure of immense historical interest. Some people like reading historical novels.
hoard + horde Shortages are made worse by people who hoard large quantities of essential commodities in their homes.
Hordes of bargain-hunters soon empty supermarket shelves.
human + humane It is said that most air crashes are the result of human error.
Proponents of euthanasia think that it is more humane to put the terminally ill out of their misery than to prolong their suffering.

Confusing Words

Examples of Usage, or Clarification
idle + idol (1) Many shipyards now lie idle.
(2) Those who shirk work are idle.
(3) Since his retirement he has just idled the hours away.
An idol is a person or statue worshipped by people.
imperial + imperious The secretive Japanese imperial household has little relevance to the lives of ordinary people. 
An imperious person is proud and overbearing, and expects to be obeyed.
incredible + incredulous It's incredible that he's been struck by lightning seven times and survived!
I was incredulous until I read it in the Guinness Book of Records!
industrial +industrious In industrial cities you'll find many factories.
Korean workers are among the most industrious in the world.
ingenious + ingenuous Some Swedish streets have an ingenious system of underground heating elements to keep them free from ice and snow in winter.
Most children are ingenuous, i.e. innocent, honest and trusting.
irrelevant + irreverent If something is irrelevant it has nothing to do with one's current situation or the topic under discussion.
If somebody is irreverent they show less respect for someone than would normally be expected.
it's + its Some people think English is hard, while others think it's easy.
The dog wagged its tail.   Read more about apostrophe usage!
judicial + judicious (1) Going to court to settle a dispute is a judicial procedure.
(2) A judicial decision is an extremely careful and prudent one.
The adjective judicious means almost the same as 'judicial' in example (2) above, i.e. well thought-out and based on sound judgment. 
lightening + lightning (1) The artist began lightening the background of his dark painting.
(2) Dawn had come and the sky was slowly lightening in the east.
(2) He was lightening her burden by doing all the shopping.
A thunderstorm means heavy rain with thunder and lightning.
literal + literate The primary meaning of a word without metaphor or allegory is its literal meaning. A literal translation is one which translates each word individually rather than making sentences that sound natural in the target language. The literal truth is the absolute truth.
To be literate means you can read and write. If you are highly literate you are a well-educated and intelligent person.
loath/loth + loathe The adjective loath (BrE also 'loth') means strongly disinclined to do something, e.g. 'Her teenage son was loath to go to school'.
To loathe is the corresponding verb meaning to detest, e.g. 'She simply loathes going to the dentist'. 
Note: This word is one of several extremely powerful, often monosyllabic expressions surviving from Old English.
loose + lose A wheel came off the car at high speed because the bolts had come loose. 
Rich people who lose their money also lose many of their friends. 
mat + matt(e) A fat cat sat on the mat in front of the door.
Simon doesn't like glossy photos. He wants them matt (or matte). 
meat + meet + mete Vegetarians don't eat meat.
You are unlikely to meet a vegetarian in a steakhouse.
If a vegetarian society found out one of its members was eating in a steakhouse, it would probably mete out a severe punishment.
miner + minor South African miners work in both gold and diamond mines.
(1) In 'The Countess of Hong Kong' Chaplin played only a minor role.
(2) He was under 18 (only a minor) and so not allowed to vote.
moral + morale (1) A moral is an accepted rule or standard of behavior.
(2) The moral of a story is the message it seeks to put across.
When a battle is going well, soldiers' morale is usually high, i.e. they show confidence and a positive attitude.
motif + motive A motif is either a distinctive theme in a work of art, literature or music, or a decorative design on, for example, cloth or wallpaper.
(1) The police were unable to find any motive (reason) for the killing.
(2) Occasionally, motive is an alternative spelling for 'motif' above.
naturalism + naturism (1) Naturalism is the study of animals, plants and living things.
(2) In art naturalism is the portrayal of nature as it really is. This is in stark contrast to idealism.
(3) In literature naturalism is a frank and detailed depiction of life as it really is.
(4) In philosophy naturalism means a complete rejection of the spiritual or supernatural.
(1) Naturism is an appreciation of the beauty of nature.
(2) Naturism is also another name for nudism, i.e. coming closer to nature by removing one's clothes.
naval + navel If you meet a retired naval officer you can say 'Long time no sea!'.
It is becoming increasingly trendy for young 'cuties' to flaunt their navels in the summertime.
official + officious (1) An official is a person in a position of trust or authority.
(2) If something is official it has been sanctioned by an authority.
Unfortunately, some officials tend to be rather officious. In other words, they exercise their authority in a self-important, domineering manner.
pail + pale A pail is an old-fashioned word for a bucket.
The adjective pale means not bright or strong in color.
passed + past (1) He passed the station on his way to work.
(2) The nurse passed the thermometer to the doctor.
(3) Harry passed his driver's test at the third attempt.
(4) He passed away the years in prison learning English.
(5) The government passed a new law against stalkers.
(6) The jury announced a guilty verdict and the judge passed sentence.
(7) The thief had donned a white overall and passed for a doctor.
(1) It's pointless looking back on the past or worrying over past mistakes.
(2) The library is just past the post office on the left-hand side.
(3) Many Japanese politicians are over 70 and, many think, past it!
pastel + pastille (1) A pastel is a kind of artist's crayon.
(2) A pastel is also a picture drawn with such crayons.
(3) Pastel colors are pale and subdued.
A pastille is a small round fruit-flavored candy or medicinal lozenge.
pedal + peddle In England you are not allowed to pedal a bicycle on the sidewalk.
Many peddlers (BrE pedlars) try to peddle Chinese medicine.
personal + personnel The adjective personal means 'private'.
The collective noun personnel means 'staff'.
plain + plane (1) Jackie was a stunner but her sister was quite plain.
(2) Jackie loved fruit yogurt but her sister preferred the plain type.
(3) It was plain to see that he was lying.
(4) The two mountains were separated by a valley with a wide plain.
(1) I took a plane from LA to Atlanta.
(2) On the way it had trouble with its tail plane. 
(3) I used a plane and then some sandpaper to smooth the wood.
(4) Humans are supposed to be on a higher plane than the apes.
popular + populous (1) Cricket is exceedingly popular (liked) in India.
(2) Reincarnation is a popular (common) belief in India.
Both Beijing and Cairo are populous (thickly inhabited) cities.
practical + practicable (1) He went to Libya to get some practical experience of camels.
(2) She was a very practical woman; she always knew just what to do.
(3) A safari suit is the most practical thing to wear on a safari.
Many scientists now believe a round-trip to Mars is practicable (feasible).
pray + prey On New Year's Day most Japanese go to a temple or shrine to pray.
Zebras are a lion's prey. Even domestic cats prey on small birds.
principal + principle (1) The principal of a U.S. school is called a headmaster in the U.K.
(2) Amsterdam is not the capital but the principal city of the Netherlands.
A principle is a basic rule or norm. An important principle of our criminal justice system is that a defendant is presumed innocent until proven guilty in a court of law.
prise + prize You might be able to prise (AmE prize) open a simple lock with a screwdriver.
A prize is something awarded to the winner of a competition. The farmer was proud of his prize bull.
prophecy + prophesy A prophecy is a statement that something will happen in the future.
The corresponding verb is to prophesy something.
prudent + prudish It is prudent to look twice each way before crossing a road.
Japanese terrestrial television is nowadays even more prudish than it was in the 1990s. Scenes of sex or nudity in imported movies are being replaced by commercial inserts. 
punctual + punctilious Teresa was always very punctual, never late for her Spanish classes.
His punctilious manner was getting on her nerves. He was always so formal and correct. If only he would let down his hair for once!
rain + reign + rein Bergen is a very wet city with more than 2000 mm of rain a year.
Queen Elizabeth II began her reign in 1953.
Reins are straps for guiding horses or restraining young children near busy roads.
raise + raze (1) If you raise something you increase it or lift it up.
(2) A raise (BrE rise) is a salary increase.
If you raze (BrE also 'rase') something you destroy it completely.
respectable + respectful (1) A respectable person or thing has won social approval.
(2) A respectable sum of money is an adequate or acceptable amount.
If you are respectful of someone then your words and manner reflect your good opinion of their ideas or character. 
respectfully + respectively They stood up respectfully when the teacher entered the room.
The three largest cities in Sweden are Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö respectively. 
review + revue (1) The New York Times gave the new show a positive review.
(2) It seems unlikely the U.S. will review its policy toward Cuba.
(3) The students did some review (BrE revision) for the exam.
A revue is light entertainment on-stage with music, dance and jokes.
rhyme + rime (1) Snug, bug and rug rhyme. 
(2) A short poem with rhyming words at the end of each line is also called a rhyme.
(3) People who commit atrocities do so without rhyme or reason.
(1) Rime is hoar frost.
(2) In archaic English rime is a spelling variant of 'rhyme' above.
rôle/role + roll Sean Connery played the leading rôle of James Bond in "Dr. No".
(1) He released the handbrake and saw the car roll down the hill.
(2) Sandra bought another roll of wallpaper.
(3) In Paris I had a cheese and ham roll for breakfast.
(4) When I joined I had my name added to the membership roll.
(5) Each morning on the tropical island I awoke to the roll of dru